Wanachi<br><br>The domain <a href="http://safaricom.com">safaricom.com</a> seems not to open. Why have they ignored the country level domain?<br><br>Alai<br><br><div><span class="gmail_quote">On 1/23/08, <b class="gmail_sendername">
<a href="mailto:kictanet-request@lists.kictanet.or.ke">kictanet-request@lists.kictanet.or.ke</a></b> <<a href="mailto:kictanet-request@lists.kictanet.or.ke">kictanet-request@lists.kictanet.or.ke</a>> wrote:</span><blockquote class="gmail_quote" style="border-left: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 0pt 0pt 0pt 0.8ex; padding-left: 1ex;">
Send kictanet mailing list submissions to<br> <a href="mailto:kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke">kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke</a><br><br>To subscribe or unsubscribe via the World Wide Web, visit<br> <a href="http://lists.kictanet.or.ke/mailman/listinfo/kictanet">
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<br>than "Re: Contents of kictanet digest..."<br><br><br>Today's Topics:<br><br> 1. about Google &Safaricom:-<a href="mailto:xyz@safaricom.com">xyz@safaricom.com</a> (John Walubengo)<br> 2. Re: about Google &Safaricom:-
<a href="mailto:xyz@safaricom.co">xyz@safaricom.co</a><br> (Odhiambo Washington)<br> 3. I.T. Case Studies... (Michael Kipsang Bullut)<br> 4. [Fwd: [AfrICANN-discuss] AFTLD 2nd African ccTLDs Event, Cape<br> Town, SA "April 2008" - Africann invited] (alice)
<br> 5. Re: about Google &Safaricom:-<a href="mailto:xyz@safaricom.co">xyz@safaricom.co</a> (Kai Wulff)<br> 6. [Fwd: [AfrICANN-discuss] ICANN Seeks Expressions of Interest<br> from Auction Design Experts] (alice)
<br> 7. [Fwd: Pambazuka News 338: Heart of darkness in Western Media]<br> (alice)<br><br><br>----------------------------------------------------------------------<br><br>Message: 1<br>Date: Tue, 22 Jan 2008 06:17:31 -0800 (PST)
<br>From: John Walubengo <<a href="mailto:jwalu@yahoo.com">jwalu@yahoo.com</a>><br>Subject: [kictanet] about Google &Safaricom:-<a href="mailto:xyz@safaricom.com">xyz@safaricom.com</a><br>To: KICTAnet KICTAnet <
<a href="mailto:kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke">kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke</a>><br>Cc: KICTAnet ICT Policy Discussions <<a href="mailto:kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke">kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke</a>><br>Message-ID: <
<a href="mailto:930487.5171.qm@web56608.mail.re3.yahoo.com">930487.5171.qm@web56608.mail.re3.yahoo.com</a>><br>Content-Type: text/plain; charset=iso-8859-1<br><br>I came accross the joint effort to b/w google & safaricom
<br>with regard to providing e-addresses. Good idea, but my<br>question was:<br><br>Is the domain '<a href="http://safaricom.com">safaricom.com</a>' locally hosted? I would have<br>been happier (technically and mentally) if the suffix was
<br><a href="mailto:xyz@safaricom.CO.KE">xyz@safaricom.CO.KE</a> or is it that suddenly the .KE suffix<br>has brought us too much shame and pain that no one wants to<br>use it :-(?<br><br>walu.<br>nb: as a way of leading by example, I have been planning to
<br>shed off my <a href="mailto:jwalu@yahoo.com">jwalu@yahoo.com</a> in favor of <a href="mailto:jwalu@jambo.co.ke">jwalu@jambo.co.ke</a><br>but I seem to be trapped in some perpetual migration<br>fever...Methinks we need to build .KE, both literally and
<br>electronically.<br><br><br><br> ____________________________________________________________________________________<br>Looking for last minute shopping deals?<br>Find them fast with Yahoo! Search. <a href="http://tools.search.yahoo.com/newsearch/category.php?category=shopping">
http://tools.search.yahoo.com/newsearch/category.php?category=shopping</a><br><br><br><br>------------------------------<br><br>Message: 2<br>Date: Tue, 22 Jan 2008 17:55:48 +0300<br>From: "Odhiambo Washington" <
<a href="mailto:odhiambo@gmail.com">odhiambo@gmail.com</a>><br>Subject: Re: [kictanet] about Google &Safaricom:-<a href="mailto:xyz@safaricom.co">xyz@safaricom.co</a><br>To: "John Walubengo" <<a href="mailto:jwalu@yahoo.com">
jwalu@yahoo.com</a>><br>Cc: KICTAnet ICT Policy Discussions <<a href="mailto:kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke">kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke</a>><br>Message-ID:<br> <<a href="mailto:991123400801220655w6acac9d1ta4f6b8929788b550@mail.gmail.com">
991123400801220655w6acac9d1ta4f6b8929788b550@mail.gmail.com</a>><br>Content-Type: text/plain; charset=ISO-8859-1<br><br>On Jan 22, 2008 5:17 PM, John Walubengo <<a href="mailto:jwalu@yahoo.com">jwalu@yahoo.com</a>> wrote:
<br>> I came accross the joint effort to b/w google & safaricom<br>> with regard to providing e-addresses. Good idea, but my<br>> question was:<br>><br>> Is the domain '<a href="http://safaricom.com">
safaricom.com</a>' locally hosted? I would have<br>> been happier (technically and mentally) if the suffix was<br>> <a href="mailto:xyz@safaricom.CO.KE">xyz@safaricom.CO.KE</a> or is it that suddenly the .KE suffix
<br>> has brought us too much shame and pain that no one wants to<br>> use it :-(?<br><br>Hi Walu,<br><br><a href="http://safaricom.CO.KE">safaricom.CO.KE</a> is used by safaricom for their staff addresses. It's
<br>simply not possible to include the ordinary mwananchi like you into<br>that! :-)<br><br>> walu.<br>> nb: as a way of leading by example, I have been planning to<br>> shed off my <a href="mailto:jwalu@yahoo.com">
jwalu@yahoo.com</a> in favor of <a href="mailto:jwalu@jambo.co.ke">jwalu@jambo.co.ke</a><br>> but I seem to be trapped in some perpetual migration<br>> fever...Methinks we need to build .KE, both literally and<br>> electronically.
<br><br><a href="http://jambo.co.ke">jambo.co.ke</a> - is that Free?<br><br>Anyway, <a href="http://walu.co.ke">walu.co.ke</a> will make more sense to me than anything else.<br><br>PS: As an aside, and at the risk of a flame war, are you personally
<br>happy with Safaricom as a provider?<br><br>--<br>Best regards,<br>Odhiambo WASHINGTON,<br>Nairobi,KE<br>+254733744121/+254722743223<br>_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _<br><br>"Oh My God! They killed init! You Bastards!"
<br> --from a /. post<br><br><br><br>------------------------------<br><br>Message: 3<br>Date: Tue, 22 Jan 2008 18:02:12 +0300<br>From: "Michael Kipsang Bullut" <<a href="mailto:kipsangb@gmail.com">
kipsangb@gmail.com</a>><br>Subject: [kictanet] I.T. Case Studies...<br>To: "KICTAnet ICT Policy Discussions" <<a href="mailto:kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke">kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke</a>><br>Cc: KICTAnet ICT Policy Discussions <
<a href="mailto:kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke">kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke</a>><br>Message-ID:<br> <<a href="mailto:2e9a33da0801220702m57c720b7q24f97d45557f807b@mail.gmail.com">2e9a33da0801220702m57c720b7q24f97d45557f807b@mail.gmail.com
</a>><br>Content-Type: text/plain; charset="iso-8859-1"<br><br>Greetings,<br><br>Does anyone by any chance have any documented I.T. Case Studies with them?<br>If you do, could you please forward them to this address:
<br><a href="mailto:kipsangb@iconnect.co.ke">kipsangb@iconnect.co.ke</a> Thank you...<br><br>Kind regards,<br><br>Michael.<br><br>--<br><br>"To see a world in a grain of sand, and a heaven in a wildflower...hold<br>infinity in the palm of your hand, and eternity in an hour..."
<br><br>~ William Blakeg.<br><br>--<br>-------------- next part --------------<br>An HTML attachment was scrubbed...<br>URL: <a href="http://lists.kictanet.or.ke/mailman/private/kictanet/attachments/20080122/77f530b9/attachment-0001.html">
http://lists.kictanet.or.ke/mailman/private/kictanet/attachments/20080122/77f530b9/attachment-0001.html</a><br><br>------------------------------<br><br>Message: 4<br>Date: Tue, 22 Jan 2008 18:58:45 +0300<br>From: alice <
<a href="mailto:alice@apc.org">alice@apc.org</a>><br>Subject: [kictanet] [Fwd: [AfrICANN-discuss] AFTLD 2nd African ccTLDs<br> Event, Cape Town, SA "April 2008" - Africann invited]<br>To: Kenya ICT Action Network - KICTANet
<br> <<a href="mailto:kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke">kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke</a>><br>Cc: KICTAnet ICT Policy Discussions <<a href="mailto:kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke">kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke</a>
><br>Message-ID: <<a href="mailto:479612B5.8020607@apc.org">479612B5.8020607@apc.org</a>><br>Content-Type: text/plain; charset=windows-1252; format=flowed<br><br>Dear all<br><br>FYI and follow up.<br><br>best<br>
alice<br><br>-------- Original Message --------<br>Subject: [AfrICANN-discuss] AFTLD 2nd African ccTLDs Event, Cape Town,<br>SA "April 2008" - Africann invited<br>Date: Tue, 22 Jan 2008 16:52:45 +0300<br>
From: Mohamed EL Bashir <<a href="mailto:admin@isoc.sd">admin@isoc.sd</a>><br>Reply-To: <a href="mailto:admin@isoc.sd">admin@isoc.sd</a>, <a href="mailto:africann@afrinic.net">africann@afrinic.net</a><br>Organization: Sudan Internet Society "SIS"
<br>To: <a href="mailto:africann@afrinic.net">africann@afrinic.net</a><br><br><br><br>Dear African<br><br>AfTLD in cooperation with South Africa's Department of Communications ?DOC?, AfTLD<br>is organizing the Second African ccTLD event ( Workshops, Training and AfTLD General
<br>Assembly meeting in Cape Town, South Africa from7th to 11th of April 2008.<br><br>AFTLD workshops main objective is to offer advanced DNS training and exchange of<br>best practices between African Country Code Top Level Domain operators/managers.
<br><br>Telecom, ISPs and Governments ICT Agencies, are invited to participate in AfTLD<br>events inorder to be contribute to the process of developing and enhancing a national<br>Internet infrastructure and provide assistance in building a strong local Internet
<br>services by promoting and utilizing country?s top level domain .<br><br>Event Programme :<br>The event programme and logistics will be announced soon.<br><br>Previous AfTLD Events :<br>Visit AfTLD 2007 Cairo Page ( materials, AGM Report, Photo Gallery, ..ect ) ..
<br><a href="http://www.aftld.org/cairo2007/index.html">http://www.aftld.org/cairo2007/index.html</a><br><br>Best Regards,<br>Mohamed El Bashir<br>VP Communications & Out-Reach<br>AFTLD<br><br><br>_______________________________________________
<br>AfrICANN mailing list<br><a href="mailto:AfrICANN@afrinic.net">AfrICANN@afrinic.net</a><br><a href="https://lists.afrinic.net/mailman/listinfo.cgi/africann">https://lists.afrinic.net/mailman/listinfo.cgi/africann</a><br>
<br><br><br><br><br>------------------------------<br><br>Message: 5<br>Date: Tue, 22 Jan 2008 19:59:56 +0300<br>From: "Kai Wulff" <<a href="mailto:kai.wulff@kdn.co.ke">kai.wulff@kdn.co.ke</a>><br>Subject: Re: [kictanet] about Google &Safaricom:-
<a href="mailto:xyz@safaricom.co">xyz@safaricom.co</a><br>To: "Odhiambo Washington" <<a href="mailto:odhiambo@gmail.com">odhiambo@gmail.com</a>><br>Cc: KICTAnet ICT Policy Discussions <<a href="mailto:kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke">
kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke</a>><br>Message-ID: <<a href="mailto:0c2401c85d18$37e08b40$360da8c0@local.kdn.co.ke">0c2401c85d18$37e08b40$360da8c0@local.kdn.co.ke</a>><br>Content-Type: text/plain; format=flowed; charset="iso-8859-1";
<br> reply-type=original<br><br>Why not register @<a href="http://butterfly.co.ke">butterfly.co.ke</a> .... It's available for free ...<br><br>Kai<br>----- Original Message -----<br>From: "Odhiambo Washington" <
<a href="mailto:odhiambo@gmail.com">odhiambo@gmail.com</a>><br>To: <<a href="mailto:kai.wulff@kdn.co.ke">kai.wulff@kdn.co.ke</a>><br>Cc: "KICTAnet ICT Policy Discussions" <<a href="mailto:kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke">
kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke</a>><br>Sent: Tuesday, January 22, 2008 17:55<br>Subject: Re: [kictanet] about Google &Safaricom:-<a href="mailto:xyz@safaricom.co">xyz@safaricom.co</a><br><br><br>> On Jan 22, 2008 5:17 PM, John Walubengo <
<a href="mailto:jwalu@yahoo.com">jwalu@yahoo.com</a>> wrote:<br>>> I came accross the joint effort to b/w google & safaricom<br>>> with regard to providing e-addresses. Good idea, but my<br>>> question was:
<br>>><br>>> Is the domain '<a href="http://safaricom.com">safaricom.com</a>' locally hosted? I would have<br>>> been happier (technically and mentally) if the suffix was<br>>> <a href="mailto:xyz@safaricom.CO.KE">
xyz@safaricom.CO.KE</a> or is it that suddenly the .KE suffix<br>>> has brought us too much shame and pain that no one wants to<br>>> use it :-(?<br>><br>> Hi Walu,<br>><br>> <a href="http://safaricom.CO.KE">
safaricom.CO.KE</a> is used by safaricom for their staff addresses. It's<br>> simply not possible to include the ordinary mwananchi like you into<br>> that! :-)<br>><br>>> walu.<br>>> nb: as a way of leading by example, I have been planning to
<br>>> shed off my <a href="mailto:jwalu@yahoo.com">jwalu@yahoo.com</a> in favor of <a href="mailto:jwalu@jambo.co.ke">jwalu@jambo.co.ke</a><br>>> but I seem to be trapped in some perpetual migration<br>>> fever...Methinks we need to build .KE, both literally and
<br>>> electronically.<br>><br>> <a href="http://jambo.co.ke">jambo.co.ke</a> - is that Free?<br>><br>> Anyway, <a href="http://walu.co.ke">walu.co.ke</a> will make more sense to me than anything else.<br>
><br>> PS: As an aside, and at the risk of a flame war, are you personally<br>> happy with Safaricom as a provider?<br>><br>> --<br>> Best regards,<br>> Odhiambo WASHINGTON,<br>> Nairobi,KE<br>> +254733744121/+254722743223
<br>> _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _<br>><br>> "Oh My God! They killed init! You Bastards!"<br>> --from a /. post<br>><br>> _______________________________________________
<br>> kictanet mailing list<br>> <a href="mailto:kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke">kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke</a><br>> <a href="http://lists.kictanet.or.ke/mailman/listinfo/kictanet">http://lists.kictanet.or.ke/mailman/listinfo/kictanet
</a><br>><br>> This message was sent to: <a href="mailto:kai.wulff@kdn.co.ke">kai.wulff@kdn.co.ke</a><br>> Unsubscribe or change your options at<br>> <a href="http://lists.kictanet.or.ke/mailman/options/kictanet/kai.wulff%40kdn.co.ke">
http://lists.kictanet.or.ke/mailman/options/kictanet/kai.wulff%40kdn.co.ke</a><br>><br>> --<br>> This message has been scanned for viruses and<br>> dangerous content by MailScanner, and is<br>> believed to be clean.
<br>><br>><br><br><br>--<br>This message has been scanned for viruses and<br>dangerous content by MailScanner, and is<br>believed to be clean.<br><br><br><br><br>------------------------------<br><br>Message: 6<br>Date: Tue, 22 Jan 2008 20:50:56 +0300
<br>From: alice <<a href="mailto:alice@apc.org">alice@apc.org</a>><br>Subject: [kictanet] [Fwd: [AfrICANN-discuss] ICANN Seeks Expressions<br> of Interest from Auction Design Experts]<br>To: Kenya ICT Action Network - KICTANet
<br> <<a href="mailto:kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke">kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke</a>><br>Cc: KICTAnet ICT Policy Discussions <<a href="mailto:kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke">kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke</a>
><br>Message-ID: <<a href="mailto:47962D00.6070305@apc.org">47962D00.6070305@apc.org</a>><br>Content-Type: text/plain; charset="iso-8859-1"<br><br>--------------------<br><br> From ICANN<br><br>Dear All,
<br><br>Thanks for your help in disseminating the word for African Companies.<br><br>ICANN Seeks Expressions of Interest from Auction Design Experts<br><br>18 January 2008<br><br>ICANN is seeking expressions of interest from entities experienced in
<br>developing and managing auction processes. ICANN has identified several<br>areas where auctions might be an appropriate tool, such as the efficient<br>disposition of data from terminated registrars and registries, the
<br>allocation of single-character second-level domain names, and perhaps,<br>resolution of contention between competing commercial applicants for<br>identical strings in the application process for new generic Top Level<br>
Domains.<br><br>A number of commenters and academics have recommended auctions as the<br>preferred method of objectively allocating scarce resources such as<br>popular second-level domain names or gTLD strings. Also, ICANN received
<br>substantial public comment in the discussion on allocation of<br>single-character second-level names that the names should be allocated<br>through an auction model.<br><br>ICANN is an internationally organized non-profit public benefit
<br>organization that administers certain features of the Internet's unique<br>identifiers. As a private-public partnership, ICANN is dedicated to<br>preserving the operational stability of the Internet; to promoting<br>
competition; to achieving broad representation of global Internet<br>communities; and to developing policy appropriate to its mission through<br>bottom-up, consensus-based processes. A general description of ICANN is<br>available at
<a href="http://icann.org/tr/english.html">http://icann.org/tr/english.html</a><br><<a href="http://www.icann.org/tr/english.html">http://www.icann.org/tr/english.html</a>>.<br><br>*Background*<br><br>As recommended by the GNSO Council, ICANN commenced a Forum on
<br>Allocation Methods for Single-Letter and Single-Digit Domain Names in<br>gTLD registries. ICANN conducted the public forum from 16 October to 15<br>December 2007.<br><br>The Forum on Allocation Methods identified support from members of the
<br>ICANN community and described several auction models of single-letter<br>and single-digit domain names at the second-level (see 16 October 2007<br>announcement at<br><a href="http://www.icann.org/announcements/announcement-16oct07.htm">
http://www.icann.org/announcements/announcement-16oct07.htm</a>, and Summary<br>of Comments located at<br><a href="http://www.icann.org/public_comment/single-letter-summary-comments-23dec07.pdf">http://www.icann.org/public_comment/single-letter-summary-comments-23dec07.pdf
</a><br>[PDF, 61K]. If these models are pursued, ICANN staff has determined that<br>the additional knowledge and expertise on auctions is necessary to<br>further work in this area.<br><br>Although implementation plans are still in development, ICANN staff has
<br>also identified auctions as a possibility of final resort for addressing<br>string contention among multiple applicants for popular new generic<br>TLDs. Additional guidance on auctions will be beneficial as staff moves
<br>toward the introduction of new gTLDs in the near future.<br><br>In furtherance of the protection of registrants, auctions also provide a<br>mechanism for addressing the termination or failure of accredited<br>registrars and gTLD registries and the efficient transfer of names to a
<br>competent, on-going registrar or registry.<br><br>*Qualifications*<br><br>Entities interested in submitting Expressions of Interest should be<br>experienced in areas of auction design, management and implementation.<br>
Prior experience with telecommunications, Internet or domain name,<br>energy/utility or other asset auctions would be particularly relevant.<br><br>*Expressions of Interest*<br><br>Expressions of interest should be sent to Patrick Jones, at
<br><a href="mailto:patrick.jones@icann.org">patrick.jones@icann.org</a> <mailto:<a href="mailto:patrick.jones@icann.org">patrick.jones@icann.org</a>> by 23:59 UTC on<br>18 February 2008. ICANN is hoping to select a qualified entity or
<br>entities to assist with auctions in 2008.<br><br>Accordingly, ICANN is eager to commence a dialogue to determine whether<br>your service is interested and would be capable of assisting ICANN with<br>the development and management of auction processes. ICANN requests
<br>Expressions of Interest from potential entities that include information<br>showing that your organization can fulfill the requirements set forth<br>above, as well as background information about your organization,<br>
appropriate experience and additional qualifications you believe would<br>be relevant, but that are not addressed above.<br><br>-------------- next part --------------<br>An embedded and charset-unspecified text was scrubbed...
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</a><br><br>------------------------------<br><br>Message: 7<br>Date: Wed, 23 Jan 2008 08:45:55 +0300<br>From: alice <<a href="mailto:alice@apc.org">alice@apc.org</a>><br>Subject: [kictanet] [Fwd: Pambazuka News 338: Heart of darkness in
<br> Western Media]<br>To: Kenya ICT Action Network - KICTANet<br> <<a href="mailto:kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke">kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke</a>><br>Cc: KICTAnet ICT Policy Discussions <<a href="mailto:kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke">
kictanet@lists.kictanet.or.ke</a>><br>Message-ID: <<a href="mailto:4796D493.4090608@apc.org">4796D493.4090608@apc.org</a>><br>Content-Type: text/plain; charset=WINDOWS-1252; format=flowed<br><br>western media bias...Africa
<br><br>-------- Original Message --------<br>Subject: Pambazuka News 338: Heart of darkness in Western Media<br>Date: Tue, 22 Jan 2008 22:26:13 +0000<br>From: Firoze Manji <<a href="mailto:fmanji@mac.com">fmanji@mac.com
</a>><br>To: <a href="mailto:pambazuka-news@pambazuka.gn.apc.org">pambazuka-news@pambazuka.gn.apc.org</a><br><br><br><br>PAMBAZUKA NEWS 338: HEART OF DARKNESS IN WESTERN MEDIA<br><br>The authoritative electronic weekly newsletter and platform for
<br>social justice in Africa<br><br>Pambazuka News (English edition): ISSN 1753-6839<br><br>With nearly 500 contributors and an estimated 500,000 readers<br>Pambazuka News is the authoritative pan African electronic weekly
<br>newsletter and platform for social justice in Africa providing<br>cutting edge commentary and in-depth analysis on politics and current<br>affairs, development, human rights, refugees, gender issues and<br>culture in Africa.
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<br><br>CONTENTS: 1. Features, 2. Comment and analysis, 3. Pan-African Postcard<br><br>Please note that views expressed in articlea published in Pambazuka<br>News reflect those of the authors and do not necessarily represent
<br>those of Pambazuka News or the publishers, Fahamu.<br><br>Support the struggle for social justice in Africa. Give generously!<br><br>Donate at: <a href="http://www.pambazuka.org/en/donate.php">http://www.pambazuka.org/en/donate.php
</a><br><br><br>/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\<br>Highlights from this issue<br><br>FEATURE:<br>- John Barbieri on media coverage of the Kenya crisis<br>- Pambazuka editors on the word ?tribe?
<br>COMMENT & ANALYSIS:<br>- Emma Mawdsley on British coverage of China in Africa<br>- John Lonsdale on ethnicity, tribe and state in Kenya<br>- Antony Ong'ayo on the Kenya case and media bias<br>PAN-AFRICAN POSTCARD: George Ogola on parachute journalism and the
<br>Kenyan crisis<br><br><br>/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\<br>1 Features<br>WHAT IS IN THE WORD TRIBE?<br>Africa Focus, Africa Action and H-Net Africa contributors on Western<br>media coverage of Africa
<br>Pambazuka editors<br><br>Pambazuka editors give you the war on the word "tribe"<br><br>What?s in a word? What does the word ?tribe? carry? Here below<br>Pambazuka Editor?s give you a few snippets of what is a long struggle
<br>to get US Mainstream media to stop using a racist and stereotypical<br>lens in its coverage of Africa. You can find the fascinating<br>discussion at www. <a href="http://www.h-net.org/~africa">http://www.h-net.org/~africa
</a> We end with an<br>excerpt from an Africa Action essay on the word tribe. You can see<br>the full essay at: <a href="http://www.africaaction.org/bp/ethall.htm">http://www.africaaction.org/bp/ethall.htm</a><br><br>Africa Focus (
<a href="http://www.africafocus.org/docs08/ethn0801.php">http://www.africafocus.org/docs08/ethn0801.php</a>)<br>narrates that Jeffrey Gettleman for the New York Times in his<br>December 31 dispatch from Nairobi [wrote that the Kenya electoral
<br>crisis], "seems to have tapped into an atavistic vein of tribal<br>tension that always lay beneath the surface in Kenya but until now<br>had not provoked widespread mayhem." Gettleman was not exceptional<br>
among those covering the post-election violence in his stress on<br>"tribe." But his terminology was unusually explicit in revealing the<br>assumption that such divisions are rooted in unchanging and<br>presumably primitive identities.
<br><br>However Africa Focus gives an update that since the Africa Focus<br>Bulletin that covered Gettleman?s use of language: ?Gettleman's<br>coverage of Kenya in the New York Times has avoided the<br>indiscriminate use of the word tribe in favor of "ethnic group," and
<br>has noted the historical origins and political character of the<br>continued violence in the country, as well as its links to ethnic<br>divisions?.<br><br>But Peter Alegi from Michigan State University in an H- Net Africa
<br>posting says and then asks: ?While Gettleman (Times' EastAfrica<br>bureau chief) seems to have toned down his use of "tribe" thanks to<br>our protests, but isn't substituting "ethnic group" for it a minor
<br>victory?<br><br>Also, folks might be interested in this side story: the other day, I<br>wrote a brief message to Bill Keller, Times' Executive Editor (ex NYT<br>correspondent from Johannesburg [1992-1995]), alerting him to the H-
<br>Africa thread on his paper's handling of the Kenya crisis.<br><br>Mr. Keller's insulting response included the following statement:<br><br>"I get it. Anyone who uses the word "tribe" is a racist. [. . .] It's
<br>a tediously familiar mantra in the Western community of Africa<br>scholars. In my experience, most Africans who live outside the<br>comforts of academia (and who use the word "tribe" with shameless<br>disregard for the political sensitivities of American academics) have
<br>more important concerns."<br><br>So Gettleman's ignorance about African languages, history, and<br>cultural identities doesn't seem to trouble his boss one bit. And the<br>utter disregard Keller seems to have for what scholars is reinforced
<br>in a closing line dripping with condescension:<br><br>"If you have a string that has something insightful to say about<br>Kenya, I hope you'll pass it along."<br><br>Kudos to AfricaFocus then, but it seems that the struggle for
<br>accuracy and informed analysis of Africa in US mainstream media is<br>going to be a long and tortuous one.<br><br>Carol Sicherman, a Professor Emerita. at Lehman College underlines<br>Alegi?s point with the following post to H-net Africa: She says
<br>writes that ?On January 12, I wrote to the Public Editor of the New<br>York Times as follows (I did not get an answer):<br><br>Reading recent dispatches from Kenya, I was pleased to notice that<br>the Times has responded to years of complaints about the biased terms
<br>"tribe" and "tribal," replacing them with "ethnic group" and<br>"ethnic." This editorial policy, however, seems to be confined to the<br>news. Roberta Smith's article "Face Time: Masks, Animal to Video" in
<br>the Arts Section on Jan. 11 uses the egregiously offensive phrase "a<br>tribal, almost animalistic ritual." It is exactly that equation that<br>makes it necessary to remove "tribe" and its related words. In the
<br>case in question, removing "tribal" would have put the focus on<br>"animalistic" without designating Africans as inherently animalistic.<br>It is particularly odd to find such a clich? in a discussion of the
<br>work of Yinka Shonibare, a highly sophisticated, learned, and ironic<br>artist.<br><br>I don't know how copy editors are instructed at the Times, but the<br>policy adopted for the news section needs to be adopted for all
<br>sections.<br><br>And last but not least, in1997 Africa Action said the following of<br>the word tribe: Tribe has no coherent meaning.<br><br>What is a tribe? The Zulu in South Africa, whose name and common<br>identity was forged by the creation of a powerful state less than two
<br>centuries ago, and who are a bigger group than French Canadians, are<br>called a tribe. So are the !Kung hunter-gatherers of Botswana and<br>Namibia, who number in the hundreds. The term is applied to Kenya's<br>Maasai herders and Kikuyu farmers, and to members of these groups in
<br>cities and towns when they go there to live and work. Tribe is used<br>for millions of Yoruba in Nigeria and Benin, who share a language but<br>have an eight-hundred year history of multiple and sometimes warring<br>city-states, and of religious diversity even within the same extended
<br>families. Tribe is used for Hutu and Tutsi in the central African<br>countries of Rwanda and Burundi. Yet the two societies (and regions<br>within them) have different histories. And in each one, Hutu and<br>Tutsi lived interspersed in the same territory. They spoke the same
<br>language, married each other, and shared virtually all aspects of<br>culture. At no point in history could the distinction be defined by<br>distinct territories, one of the key assumptions built into "tribe."
<br><br>Tribe is used for groups who trace their heritage to great kingdoms.<br>It is applied to Nigeria's Igbo and other peoples who organized<br>orderly societies composed of hundreds of local communities and<br>highly developed trade networks without recourse to elaborate states.
<br>Tribe is also used for all sorts of smaller units of such larger<br>nations, peoples or ethnic groups. The followers of a particular<br>local leader may be called a tribe. Members of an extended kin-group<br>may be called a tribe. People who live in a particular area may be
<br>called a tribe. We find tribes within tribes, and cutting across<br>other tribes. Offering no useful distinctions, tribe obscures many.<br>As a description of a group, tribe means almost anything, so it<br>really means nothing.
<br><br>If by tribe we mean a social group that shares a single territory, a<br>single language, a single political unit, a shared religious<br>tradition, a similar economic system, and common cultural practices,<br>such a group is rarely found in the real world. These characteristics
<br>almost never correspond precisely with each other today, nor did they<br>at any time in the past.<br><br>Tribe promotes a myth of primitive African timelessness, obscuring<br>history and change.<br><br>The general sense of tribe as most people understand it is associated
<br>with primitiveness. To be in a tribal state is to live in a<br>uncomplicated, traditional condition. It is assumed there is little<br>change. Most African countries are economically poor and often<br>described as less developed or underdeveloped. Westerners often
<br>conclude that they have not changed much over the centuries, and that<br>African poverty mainly reflects cultural and social conservatism.<br>Interpreting present day Africa through the lens of tribes reinforces<br>the image of timelessness. Yet the truth is that Africa has as much
<br>history as anywhere else in the world. It has undergone momentous<br>changes time and again, especially in the twentieth century. While<br>African poverty is partly a product of internal dynamics of African<br>societies, it has also been caused by the histories of external slave
<br>trades and colonial rule.<br><br>In the modern West, tribe often implies primitive savagery.<br><br>When the general image of tribal timelessness is applied to<br>situations of social conflict between Africans, a particularly
<br>destructive myth is created. Stereotypes of primitiveness and<br>conservative backwardness are also linked to images of irrationality<br>and superstition. The combination leads to portrayal of violence and<br>conflict in Africa as primordial, irrational and unchanging. This
<br>image resonates with traditional Western racialist ideas and can<br>suggest that irrational violence is inherent and natural to Africans.<br>Yet violence anywhere has both rational and irrational components.<br>Just as particular conflicts have reasons and causes elsewhere, they
<br>also have them in Africa. The idea of timeless tribal violence is not<br>an explanation. Instead it disguises ignorance of real causes by<br>filling the vacuum of real knowledge with a popular stereotype.<br><br>Images of timelessness and savagery hide the modern character of
<br>African ethnicity, including ethnic conflict.<br><br>The idea of tribe particularly shapes Western views of ethnicity and<br>ethnic conflict in Africa, which has been highly visible in recent<br>years. Over and over again, conflicts are interpreted as "ancient
<br>tribal rivalries," atavistic eruptions of irrational violence which<br>have always characterized Africa. In fact they are nothing of the<br>sort. The vast majority of such conflicts could not have happened a<br>century ago in the ways that they do now. Pick almost any place where
<br>ethnic conflict occurs in modern Africa. Investigate carefully the<br>issues over which it occurs, the forms it takes, and the means by<br>which it is organized and carried out. Recent economic developments<br>and political rivalries will loom much larger than allegedly ancient
<br>and traditional hostilities.<br><br>Ironically, some African ethnic identities and divisions now<br>portrayed as ancient and unchanging actually were created in the<br>colonial period. In other cases earlier distinctions took new, more
<br>rigid and conflictual forms over the last century. The changes came<br>out of communities' interactions within a colonial or post-colonial<br>context, as well as movement of people to cities to work and live.<br>The identities thus created resemble modern ethnicities in other
<br>countries, which are also shaped by cities, markets and national states.<br><br>Tribe substitutes a generalized illusion for detailed analysis of<br>particular situations.<br><br>The bottom-line problem with the idea of tribe is that it is
<br>intellectually lazy. It substitutes the illusion of understanding for<br>analysis of particular circumstances. Africa is far away from North<br>America. Accurate information about particular African states and<br>societies takes more work to find than some other sorts of
<br>information. Yet both of those situations are changing rapidly.<br>Africa is increasingly tied into the global economy and international<br>politics. Using the idea of tribe instead of real, specific<br>information and analysis of African events has never served the truth
<br>well. It also serves the public interest badly.<br><br>*Please send comments to <a href="mailto:editor@pambazuka.org">editor@pambazuka.org</a> or comment online at<br><a href="http://www.pambazuka.org">http://www.pambazuka.org
</a><br>******<br><br>THE POVERTY OF INTERNATIONAL JOURNALISM<br>John Barbieri<br><br>John Barbieri writes about the pervasive and dangerous myths that<br>have characterized the coverage of Kenya's post election crisis in
<br>the US and elsewhere<br><br>First, let me honorably mention that the title of this piece is<br>borrowed from Kenyan journalist Rebecca Wanjiku [1]. As most others,<br>I have watched in dismay and outrage at the events in Kenya following
<br>the announcement on Dec. 30th of the (manipulated) election results.<br>I have been equally, if not more so, dismayed, outraged and disgusted<br>by how the situation and violence there has been depicted and framed<br>
in the international media, especially here in the United States. In<br>almost all of the recent coverage and commentary on Kenya in the<br>mainstream U.S. media there have been three particularly dangerous<br>and pervasive myths and misrepresentations that have appeared. All of
<br>these myths have been previously commented on by much more eminent<br>figures than I, but perhaps it will help to restate and further<br>comment on all of them in one place.<br><br>Three Pervasive Myths and Misrepresentations
<br><br>First, this is not ?ethnic conflict.? Similar to the way that most<br>African conflicts get reported, there is the ubiquitous framing of<br>the situation as conflict solely being driven by ethnicity. This is<br>most profoundly seen in the statements of ?tribal conflict?; it must
<br>be made clear that this is an extremely racist, antiquated and<br>inaccurate depiction of the situation. Though there has been an<br>ethnic factor to some of the conflict, this factor is largely<br>overemphasized at expense of the more pervasive factor of the rich/
<br>poor and the gross inequities in resource distribution across and<br>among ?ethnic lines? (that is as if such lines could be so clearly<br>drawn). As many have more articulately said elsewhere the situation<br>must be re-framed as a political conflict.
<br><br>More specifically, the organized violence following the elections<br>must be framed as political elites manipulating their supporters<br>(including paying and equipping armed militias and using the armed<br>instruments of the State) to inflict violence on their behalf; it is
<br>so-called leaders fomenting hatred among their supporters all for<br>their own personal benefit; and it is power-hungry politicians<br>willing to do whatever it takes, literally willing to throw Kenyans?<br>lives away in their attempt to do it, and to be so disgustingly eager
<br>to use that violence as a mere pressure point on the national and<br>international community to get/retain power. Both parties were guilty<br>of this, but in particular the man sworn in as President has employed<br>the disproportionate brutal force of the police and military,
<br>especially the General Service Unit.<br><br>The repercussions of depicting the situation as solely ethnically-<br>driven can be seen in the distorted sense of history and context for<br>all conflicts in Africa and elsewhere. One of the most pervasive
<br>historical misconstructions is especially evident in the popular<br>writings and collective memory of the Rwandan genocide, which<br>continue to frame the genocide as being simply the result of<br>primordial ?tribal conflict.? In so doing the context and history of
<br>the genocide is obfuscated by neglecting the ongoing role played by<br>the brutal legacy of the colonial power (Belgium in the case of<br>Rwanda) and of national, regional and international politics<br>following ?independence.?
<br><br>Second, this is not a ?shock.? We need to attack the myths and claims<br>being reported that the developments in Kenya are a great ?shock,?<br>and that this is a great blow to a ?beacon of stability, democracy<br>
and economic growth in Africa.? For anyone who knows the history of<br>Kenya, the history of colonialism and the history since<br>?independence,? they know that these developments are not a shock and<br>that they have been long in the making. The developments are directly
<br>connected to the inability of the Kenyan government to come to terms<br>with the brutal legacy and power distributions inherited from British<br>rule, including the constitution itself. And specifically the<br>developments were written all over the wall leading up to the
<br>election to anyone who was paying attention to the fomenting of<br>ethnic tension by Kibaki/PNU and Odinga/ODM, yet too few seemed<br>willing to acknowledge it. Anyone who claims that this is a ?shock?<br>is either blatantly ignorant, dishonest or practices mere wishful
<br>thinking to be so na?ve. And anyone who claims that Kenya is a grand<br>?beacon of stability, democracy and economic growth in Africa?<br>misrepresents the hardships and injustices that the vast majority of<br>Kenyans desperately face on a daily basis; they also inaccurately
<br>depict the past five years of the ?booming economic growth? witnessed<br>under the Kibaki regime, which through exorbitant amounts of<br>corruption and increasing income inequality has ensured that the<br>benefits from that robust economic growth has by-and-large reached
<br>only the very elite.<br><br>Third, and perhaps most importantly, is the role of the U.S. It must<br>be made clear and people must fully understand the large role that<br>the U.S. has been playing in Kenya and throughout eastern Africa. The
<br>U.S. has keenly been trying to build up allies in East Africa and the<br>Horn of Africa to counterbalance other perceived ?threat? countries<br>in the region. These key U.S. allies include Kenya, Tanzania,<br>Ethiopia, Djibouti, Uganda and the Transitional Federal Government of
<br>Somalia. These allies are meant to act as a counter-balance to the<br>?threats? of Sudan (the Bashir regime), Eritrea and the Union of<br>Islamic Courts (UIC) in Somalia. The Bush administration has clearly<br>supported incumbent Kibaki due to the fact that his government has
<br>been one of these key allies in the ?war on terror? in the East and<br>the Horn of Africa. The Kibaki administration has allowed and worked<br>closely with the U.S. on supposed ?terrorist? raids along the coast<br>of Kenya. The Kenyan Anti-Terrorism Unit (with American and British
<br>support) has conducted these extralegal anti-terrorism operations<br>along the Kenyan coast, targeting the sizeable Muslim population<br>there. According to human rights organizations in Kenya these anti-<br>terrorism operations have included the roundup, torture and
<br>extradition of Muslims (to Somalia, Ethiopia and elsewhere) without<br>being charged or given a trial, similar to ?war on terror? operations<br>elsewhere. The people, nearly all of whom are Muslims, being targeted<br>
are dubiously claimed to be Al Qaeda operatives or a part of other<br>subversive terrorist organizations.<br><br>Similarly, Kenya was an ally during the U.S.-supported invasion of<br>Somalia by Ethiopian forces to overthrow the Union of Islamic Courts
<br>(UIC) in southern Somalia exactly one year ago. What was, and still<br>is, routinely missed in the story of the UIC is how they helped to<br>implement order, stability and social services that had not been seen<br>in southern Somalia for nearly 15 years; and how the UIC was
<br>primarily an effort to depose corrupt warlords (many of whom were<br>being backed by the U.S.), not to impose an international Al Qaeda-<br>like jihadist movement as many claim(ed). Kenya?s (i.e., the Kibaki<br>administration?s) role in the military operations included working
<br>with U.S. forces along the Kenya-Somalia border and the ubiquitous<br>sharing of ?intelligence,? but they also played a more direct role as<br>well. At the onset of the invasion, the Kenyan military, seemingly at<br>the behest of the
U.S., closed off its border with Somalia and<br>refused entry to all Somalis, including refugees, trying to flee<br>southern Somalia. Soon after, the U.S. conducted air strikes in<br>southern Somalia killing at least 30 people, most, if not all, of
<br>whom were probably fleeing civilians, not ?Al Qaeda operatives? as<br>was alleged. In short, the Bush administration had clear ?national<br>security? ambitions in seeking that Kibaki, as a key ?war on terror?<br>ally in eastern Africa, stay in power. Also, add to this the vested
<br>American, UK and other European business interests in Kenya as well,<br>who likely did not care for Odinga?s ?social democratic? platform<br>which was posing the threat of more taxes and redistributive wealth.<br><br>
The biggest blow to U.S. credibility and neutrality in the matter,<br>though, came immediately after the election results were announced.<br>Incredulously, the U.S. State Department quickly came out and<br>congratulated the man sworn in as President on his ?victory.? This
<br>was done despite the fact that every diplomat in the country clearly<br>knew of the irregularities in the election and the hastily swearing<br>in process of the President. Realizing its mistake the State<br>Department quickly moved to retract this congratulatory statement,
<br>and then issued a statement calling an end to the violence and for<br>the situation to be resolved through ?constitutional and legal<br>remedies.? However, it is quite clear that these ?remedies? are<br>blatantly weighted in the incumbent?s favor and thus will merely
<br>support the status quo: Kibaki and corruption. Since January 4th the<br>U.S. has been pursuing the diplomacy route with Assistant Secretary<br>of State for African Affairs Jendayi Frazer, who has now departed,<br>and Ambassador Michael Ranneberger leading these attempts. However,
<br>it is was disturbing that despite Frazer?s close watch and ongoing<br>separate talks with both sides, she (and therefore the U.S. in<br>general) was not able to prevent Kibaki from disastrously going ahead<br>and filling the most critical posts in the President?s cabinet.
<br><br>More recently it should be no surprise that the few Heads of State<br>who have come out and congratulated Kibaki on his ?victory? are also<br>key ?war on terror? allies of the Bush administration. These Heads of<br>
State include: President Yoweri Museveni of Uganda (who has received<br>much aid from the Bush administration and has been crucial in<br>supplying troops for the AU force in Somalia), transitional President<br>Abdullahi Yusuf of Somalia (who the
U.S., Ethiopia and Kenya helped<br>reinstate after the overthrow of the UIC), Sheikh Sabah of Kuwait,<br>King Mohammed VI of Morocco, and Prime Minister Themba Dlamini of<br>Swaziland. An excerpt from Somali President Abdullahi Yusuf?s
<br>congratulatory message to President Kibaki is worth quoting: ??both<br>our countries must remain strong partners on the global war on terror<br>and steadfast Allies in protecting freedom.? Further still, Uganda?s<br>starch dependence on Kenyan supply routes and Museveni?s close
<br>relationship with Kibaki must be stressed, and therefore the<br>widespread reports that the Uganda People?s Defense Force is<br>masquerading as police, destroying property and killing people in<br>western Kenya must be seriously addressed!
<br><br>As others have already made clear (e.g., Mukoma wa Ngugi [2], Wandia<br>Njoya [3], etc.), it should not be assumed that Odinga/ODM is somehow<br>inherently antithetical to the interests of the U.S. and of<br>international capital; the extravagant fuss over Odinga?s Hummer was
<br>perhaps one highly illustrative example of his true nature as an<br>elite who gladly enjoys connections to the West and living well above<br>the rest of Kenyans. Also, it should not be believed that U.S.<br>support for corrupt and autocratic Kenyan leaders started with Bush-
<br>Kibaki, it is well-documented how the U.S. had been keenly supporting<br>and arming the preceding 24 year dictatorship of Daniel arap Moi<br>during the final years of Cold War geopolitics and beyond. Lastly,<br>all of this is not meant to suggest a direct
U.S. connection to the<br>manipulated election results, but still the overall interests and<br>role of the U.S., and other international actors, in Kenya must be<br>made clear. (For more facts and figures on the U.S.?s military ties
<br>to Kenya and incumbent Kibaki see Daniel Volman?s excellent short<br>article <<a href="http://www.concernedafricascholars.org/080110_volman.php">http://www.concernedafricascholars.org/080110_volman.php</a>> [4].)
<br><br>The Poverty of International Journalism<br><br>In all, it has been disgusting how reporters have been so eager to<br>energetically document and provide inaccurate and inhumane commentary<br>on the bloodshed, but have been too unconcerned in trying to actually
<br>understand the situation and report what Kenyans are really saying<br>and thinking; although this should certainly come as no surprise. The<br>inspiration and title for this article comes from Kenyan journalist<br>Rebecca Wanjiku?s blog ?The Poverty of International Journalism,? and
<br>this excerpt about a broadcast on CNN is worth quoting at length:<br><br>Understanding the local language is very important when reporting<br>from foreign countries. For instance on Sunday [January 6th 2008],<br>there was on television an injured man and those carrying him said in
<br>Swahili "tunampeleka hospitali" (we are taking him to hospital?) But<br>the journalist's translation was that he had been asked "are you shot<br>or cut?" with the response coming back that he was actually the
<br>victim of a shooting. It is unlikely that this was an innocent<br>mistake, the journalist may simply not have cared what was true and<br>what was not, and it is unlikely either that the world audience would<br>have noticed, but using video like this to underline a story you are
<br>making up is dishonest reporting. I have faith that Kenyans will soon<br>be embracing each other, and that we will soon get back to the urgent<br>yet more mundane tasks of kujitafutia riziki ? putting food on the<br>table. I hope CNN will be around to cover that and not simply rush on
<br>to the next big story. By the way, how comes CNN does not cover<br>American soldiers or civilians bleeding and writhing in pain, yet has<br>no second thought for the dignity of the dead and dying from other<br>countries?
<br><br>It has been Kenyan journalists and bloggers, like Rebecca, and other<br>local reporters who have been the real champions of correctly<br>depicting and analyzing the situation, and who are actually raising<br>the real desperate concerns of Kenyans. Rather than condescendingly
<br>prescribing analysis and treatment from London, New York or even the<br>U.S. embassy in Nairobi (which is, although not as geographically<br>removed, as cognitively removed from the concerns of Kenyans), the<br>mainstream media needs to listen, understand and make clear the
<br>history and context of the current situation, and stop speaking so<br>ignorantly and arrogantly about it.<br><br>And good journalists need to call out fellow journalists who are<br>perpetuating the pervasive myths and stereotypes (
e.g., Canadian<br>journalist Arno Kopecky?s Daily Nation article [5]). I would like to<br>take this opportunity, then, to call out CNN reporter Zain Verjee.<br>Miss Verjee, as someone who grew up in Kenya, and therefore should
<br>know better, it is despicable how you have been playing up the<br>?ethnic conflict? angle in your TV reporting. Why are you doing this?<br>Are you callously using the plight of your countrymen/women to simply<br>boost your career ambitions? Why is it that you so seldom let other
<br>Kenyans actually speak, and rather choose to just speak ?on their<br>behalf?? Why is it that as someone who has worked on campaigns to<br>spread awareness of violence against women have you not been more<br>vigorously reporting the disproportionate effect that the violence
<br>and displacement has had on women in Kenya? Why is it that I have not<br>once heard you mention the role the U.S. is playing in Kenya? Miss<br>Verjee I am sorry that you were hit by a teargas canister during your<br>recent reporting (although it should not have been a surprise given
<br>your attempt to ?get the story?), but perhaps you might now feel some<br>of the brutality that so many Kenyans have endured and perhaps now<br>you may start honestly speaking on their behalf and letting their<br>voices be heard.
<br><br>The situation in Kenya, like all political conflicts (e.g., eastern<br>Democratic Republic of Congo, Somalia, Darfur, eastern Chad, Iraq,<br>Pakistan, Burma, Sri Lanka, etc.), should be vigorously reported, but<br>
it must be framed and depicted accurately by incorporating a proper<br>historical context and the perspective of the people there. The<br>perspectives/stories of people there must be told, but they must not<br>be simply trivialized and sensationalized, as is so often done,
<br>particularly in the simplemindedness of televised ?reporting.? It is<br>so sad that in the business that is U.S. TV reporting we seldom<br>actually hear the voices of people telling their stories from around<br>the world; rather we too often get a voice-over by some clearly
<br>intelligible Western (i.e., ?white-sounding?) reporter. Why not use<br>subtitles!?! Why must these people be robbed from having their voices<br>heard, why must we be robbed from hearing them?!? Or why not find<br>articulate English speakers (there certainly are an abundance of them
<br>in Kenya) to speak on their own behalf, and not demean their<br>?foreignness? by using unwarranted subtitles? And why do we have to<br>wait for ?crisis? situations to hear these voices? Why do we hear, or<br>rather really just see, only the bad? Why do we not hear and see
<br>good, fun, silly, playful, uplifting and empowering stories being<br>told every day? Why do we not hear and see stories with depth about<br>love and dreams as often as we superficially see stories about loss<br>and despair?
<br><br>In conclusion, news without a proper sense of history and context is<br>just a list of jumbled half-truths, and news without a proper respect<br>for and input from the people who are actually affected is just a<br>
list of callous stereotypes. In the past week, now that the violence<br>has slightly eased, the U.S. media seems to be losing interest in the<br>situation in Kenya. Forgive the extreme vulgarity, but the mainstream<br>U.S
. media appears to send the following double message: we are not<br>interested in Africans or African politics, that is unless there is a<br>full out Rwanda-like bloodbath (with pictures of gruesome machete<br>attacks and all, of course) so we can stereotype all Africans as the
<br>savages we think they are. I hope that all journalists, reporters and<br>editors may heed these calls and start acting responsibly and start<br>reporting the truth coming ?out of Africa.?<br><br>* John Barbieri is an independent reporter who lived in Kenya from
<br>Jan.-June 2007, and is the founder of the US Coalition for Peace with<br>Truth and Justice in Kenya. He can currently be reached at<br><a href="mailto:kenyanpeace@gmail.com">kenyanpeace@gmail.com</a><br><br>*Please send comments to
<a href="mailto:editor@pambazuka.org">editor@pambazuka.org</a> or comment online at<br><a href="http://www.pambazuka.org">http://www.pambazuka.org</a><br><br>* Please click on the link for the article notes<br><a href="http://www.pambazuka.org/en/category/features/45590">
http://www.pambazuka.org/en/category/features/45590</a><br>******<br><br><br><br>/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\<br>2 Comment and analysis<br>FU MANCHU VERSUS DR LIVINGSTONE IN THE DARK CONTINENT?
<br>How British broadsheet newspapers represent China, Africa and the West<br>Emma Mawdsley<br><br>Emma Mawdsley examines the coverage of China's growing influence in<br>Africa by the British print media<br><br>The words and images we use do not describe ?reality?, they create
<br>it. Language (terms, metaphors, and analogies) and images (such as<br>films, news photos, maps and cartoons) are caught up in struggles<br>over interpretation ? which means that the language and images of the<br>powerful are important tools in creating and maintaining particular
<br>points of view amongst politicians, policy-makers and the public.<br>This paper explores the way in which six British broadsheet<br>newspapers have covered China?s growing role in Africa over the past<br>seven years. China?s impacts in Africa are complex and varied by
<br>country, sector and context, and most of the newspaper articles<br>reflect that. Whether more critical or approving in tone, the<br>articles invariably point to both benefits and problems associated<br>with China?s rise. Even those which focus on specific issues or
<br>countries, tend to open or conclude with at least a sentence or two<br>outlining a broader assessment of the prospects and problems<br>associated with the growing relationship. Even so, a detailed<br>analysis led us to identify five narrative tropes that recurred
<br>consistently and frequently, which tended to systematically endorse<br>images of African weakness, Western trusteeship and Chinese<br>ruthlessness:<br><br>1) a tendency to refer to ?the Chinese? or ?China?, as if the various
<br>Chinese actors all shared the same interests;<br>2) a tendency to focus excessively on China?s interests in oil over<br>other commodities;<br>3) a decided preference for focussing on China?s negative impacts on<br>the continent, and within that, on issues and places of violence,
<br>disorder and corruption (e.g. Zimbabwe, Sudan, Angola) over other<br>negative issues (e.g. trade imbalances, undermining domestic<br>manufacturing sectors);<br>4) a tendency to portray Africans as victims or villains; and
<br>5) a frequently complacent account of the role and interest of<br>different western actors in Africa. Representations of Africa, China<br>and the West First, most press reports tend to refer simply to ?the<br>Chinese?, often overlooking the fact that Chinese communities and
<br>actors in Africa are diverse in origins, roles and interests. The<br>Chinese in Africa include longer standing and more recent diasporic<br>communities, often engaged in small and medium business, but with a<br>range of histories and relations with China and with their adopted
<br>African homes. Media accounts tend to focus much more strongly on<br>Chinese state firms and agencies, as well as the more recent wave of<br>large private enterprises (although the distinction can be blurred).<br>But interests differ ? longer term Chinese diasporic populations, the
<br>managers of Chinese companies, Chinese labourers employed by those<br>companies, and different elements of the Chinese Government may have<br>very different views on, for example, political stability, corporate<br>transparency or democratic accountability. Different Chinese firms
<br>may have competing interests over what constitute desirable<br>conditions for import/export trade or commodity extraction/<br>manufactures. The following quote indicates competing interests that<br>are otherwise rarely reflected in the media accounts that were
<br>analysed: ?Venturing into Africa is a superficially attractive option<br>for Chinese enterprises with limited global experience, as they can<br>avoid the kind of competition and rules they face in markets such as<br>the US or the European Union. But Chinese companies are also under
<br>great pressure to invest in Africa to fulfil political commitments<br>made by China?s leaders, who provide financial incentives, including<br>cheap loans, for them to go overseas. ?First we must listen to what<br>the country says, but we have our own company considerations? says Mr
<br>Wang of Chico, an enterprise controlled by the provincial government<br>of Henan ?[Mr Wang says] they ?get criticism? from officials back<br>home if they miss business targets, which often involve expanding<br>overseas investment? (Financial Times, 20 June 2006: ?China ventures
<br>on rocky roads to trade with Africa?).<br><br>Allied to this is a tendency to isolate Chinese firms as nationally<br>discrete entities. In fact, joint enterprises with both African and<br>western firms are becoming more common.
<br><br>The second theme identified is the focus on oil and, to a lesser<br>extent, natural gas and ores, over other commodities. This reflects a<br>wider focus on the geopolitics of oil, a subject that the Iraq war<br>and massive oil price rises have brought to the fore of western
<br>public attention. Although oil is undeniably an important issue, and<br>a major component of Sino-Africa trade and economic growth, this is<br>concentrated in Angola, Sudan, Nigeria, Gabon and Guinea. For many<br>African countries, exports of fish, timber and grain, or imports of
<br>relatively cheap manufactured goods are just as important. The focus<br>on oil lends itself to a discourse of resource competition rather<br>than the recognition that China and the West have a range of<br>interests and relations in Africa, including potentially
<br>complementary ones. Third is a very uneven focus on China's interests<br>and impacts in different African nations. More positive elements tend<br>to get less attention (debt cancellation, investment, lower commodity
<br>prices for consumers, support for a greater international voice etc),<br>with a preferred focus on problem issues. Moreover, we find that<br>there is a preferred focus on zones and subjects of violent conflict,<br>corruption, genocide and authoritarian leadership, rather than, say,
<br>the less gripping images of China?s impacts on trade imbalances or<br>under-cutting of African manufacturing sectors. The overwhelming<br>balance of articles is on Sudan, Zimbabwe and Angola, with far less<br>attention paid to, for example, Lesotho, which is experiencing
<br>immense hardship competing with China in textile production; or Kenya<br>which is struggling to compete with China in the manufactured goods<br>sector.<br><br>Fourth, within these accounts, Africans, tend to be reduced to
<br>villains (Mugabe, the Sudanese government) and victims (African<br>populations, Darfur, the poor), an observation that fits with the<br>findings of many other critical evaluations of the media. African<br>agency, as leaders or ordinary citizens, workers and consumers, is
<br>rarely emphasised. Allusions to adolescence or childhood are common.<br>Thus, discussing China?s effects on Chad:<br><br>?Chad was supposed to establish a model of good practice. But, as a<br>western observer in the country puts it: ?The risk is [following
<br>China?s oil deals] it will become an example for the worst [African]<br>pupils? [emphasis added]. (Financial Times, 23 January 2006: ?The<br>?resource curse? anew?.)<br><br>The paternalistic line that the West needs to save Africa from China?
<br>depredations is something reflected elsewhere in the media. An<br>extended Channel Four news report which was widely circulated and<br>repeated, started: ?To Tony Blair, Africa is somewhere which needs<br>healing or saving and Sierra Leone gets a lot of British aid. But the
<br>Chinese are looking at the continent through different eyes. They see<br>it as a source of raw materials, especially oil, which they need for<br>their own development. And somewhere like Sierra Leone, fresh out of<br>
war ? they think it?s ripe for trade and investment? (Lindsey<br>Hillsum, Channel Four, 4 July 2005)<br><br>Finally, Western actors ? businesses, governments, national and<br>international development NGOs ? are typically portrayed as benign
<br>within the majority of these articles and accounts. Many articles<br>imply or state that while the West did in the past have supported<br>authoritarian leaders, or were party to corrupt business practices,<br>it has learnt its lesson and reformed. While colonialism was
<br>economically exploitative and morally wrong, according to many of the<br>articles exploring China?s ?new African safari? or ?new scramble for<br>Africa?, western colonialism is claimed to at least have had a<br>paternalistic/developmental dimension and well-intentioned elements -
<br>an attitude that has translated into an ethical concern for Africa in<br>the postcolonial period.<br><br>Thus, in the contemporary setting, Western companies supposedly<br>operate under a different ethical regime because of their own high
<br>convictions; labour laws; voluntary agreements as part of wider<br>government and third sector pressure to improve business with Africa;<br>consumer demands for more ethical production and trading; and/or<br>shareholder pressure. None of these are said to apply to state-run or
<br>private Chinese companies. Above all, the dominant (although by no<br>means universal, narrative) that runs through many of the articles is<br>that the mistakes of the past have been addressed, and the West is<br>now the architect and energiser of a new drive towards good
<br>governance and development, with aid now accompanied by ethical<br>conditionalities, while reformed commercial practices promise<br>investment, extraction and trade that will enhance development rather<br>than line the pockets of kleptocratic elites. These faltering steps
<br>forward, which will be of mutual benefit to western companies and<br>ordinary African people, are under threat from the unscrupulous<br>Chinese. A few quotes give a flavour of these arguments: ?But while<br>the meeting [2006 FOCAC] is intended to fuel China?s global drive for
<br>resources, raw materials and markets, concerns are growing that the<br>boosters of Beijing do not have Africa?s best interests at heart and<br>that western countries will be cut out of future business?. (The<br>Guardian, 1 November 2006: ?Beijing?s Race for Africa?)
<br><br>?There are concerns too about soft loans leading to unsustainable<br>debt and generous aid programmes that undermine efforts to improve<br>governance, transparency and accountability. If the World Bank and<br>IMF say no or attach conditions, Beijing always says yes?. The [2006]
<br>Beijing Summit is a big deal for China, a deliberately showy monument<br>to its value-free strategy. It would be absurd to claim that western<br>greed and interest did not do enormous damage in an earlier scramble<br>
for Africa. But the age of colonialism is over. It should be accepted<br>today that global power brings global responsibilities. Tyranny,<br>inequality and corruption offend universal values. In the countries<br>where it now has the ability to make a difference, China should think
<br>twice about offering its help with no strings attached?. (The<br>Guardian, 4 November 2006: ?Scrambling to Beijing: China and Africa?)<br><br>?That virtuous circle of increased assistance and better governance<br>has been the hall mark of the approach taken, with varying degrees of
<br>success, by the West and Japan since the end of the Cold War. China<br>now threatens to blow apart that consensus?. (The Telegraph, 26 April<br>2006: ?The dragon in Africa?)<br><br>?Soft Chinese loans to vulnerable and corrupt African regimes,
<br>arranged outside the painstakingly agreed Equator Principles for<br>responsible lending, risk reversing progress towards extricating such<br>regimes from debt. ? And misconceived or badly executed civil<br>engineering projects risk irreversible environmental damage ? Such a
<br>critique is valid. Coming from the West it also has a hint of the<br>hypocritical. China?s current scramble for African energy and<br>resources is modest compared with Europe?s scramble for African<br>territory a century and a half ago. And China?s sometimes reckless
<br>spending only mirrors gambles by Western banks and governments in the<br>postwar era. But now Beijing risks repeating the West?s mistakes ?<br>when it allowed massive increases in overseas aid and investment with<br>no commensurate adjustments to its foreign policy?. (The Times, 2
<br>November 2006: ?China and Africa?)<br><br>There are undeniably elements of truth in some of this ? some western<br>companies are indeed bound by their charters, public pressure and<br>voluntary agreements to abide by standards that can reduce their
<br>competitiveness with companies not thus circumscribed. Bilateral and<br>multilateral initiatives on debt, trade and aid have made some<br>advances towards greater equity and reparation of injustices. These<br>efforts and advances should not be belittled. However, there are
<br>three main sets of problems with the imagery of a benign west being<br>undermined by a ruthless and unscrupulous China. The first is that,<br>despite advances, many western companies remain mired in corrupt and<br>exploitative business practices. Without losing sight of the
<br>importance and achievements of incremental improvements in western<br>accountability and transparency, they remain inadequate. The second<br>problem is that of scope and scale ? the West?s impact on Africa<br>cannot be reduced to the efforts of NGOs, aid agencies or companies.
<br>We must look beyond these limited horizons to debt, unjust trade<br>regulations, uneven power in the institutions of global governance,<br>the ?war on terror?, and increasingly, perhaps, climate change, to<br>develop a better understanding of the West?s impacts on Africa.
<br>Third, ?development? is almost invariably coded as apolitical and<br>positive in these articles ? although interestingly such partiality<br>and complacency tended to be situational, apparent when framed within<br>the specific China-Africa story. Newspapers and even individual
<br>journalists who in other reports may be very critical of, for<br>example, the halting, late and inadequate provision of medical<br>supplies, or debt, or trade inequalities, appear to become less<br>critical when the West is framed in the same article as China. Thus,
<br>while the Australian, French and South African companies may also be<br>condemned for working in Zimbabwe, in none of the articles analysed<br>were these framed in the same space as a critique of China?s business<br>interests.
<br><br>Running throughout, we can identify recurring words and phrases which<br>are indicative of the images outlined above: China is ?guzzling?,<br>?aggressive?, an ?economic juggernaut?, ?insatiably? ?thirsty? for<br>oils and minerals, and ?voraciously? capitalist. ?China is prowling
<br>the globe in search of energy sources? (Declan Walsh, 9 Nov. 2005,<br>The Guardian, emphasis added)<br><br>?As a voracious China scours the world for minerals, no regime is off<br>limits? (Financial Times, 12 Jan 2006: ?Insatiable Beijing scours the
<br>world for profit and power?)<br><br>?[China] is ravenous for raw materials?. (The Telegraph, 26 April<br>2006: ?The dragon in Africa?)<br><br>In an article headlined ?China?s goldmine: Tony Blair and Bono see<br>Africa as a moral cause; China sees it as a business opportunity. But
<br>is Beijing?s interest based on economic partnership ? or ruthless<br>exploitation??, we find:<br><br>?The resurrection of Chambishi [a major Zambian copper mine] is just<br>one small example of China?s explosion into Africa. From the barest
<br>foothold a decade ago an army of diplomats, technicians and<br>entrepreneurs has kicked the continent?s door wide open, making<br>Beijing a heavyweight investor and political player? (The Guardian,<br>28 March 2006: ?China?s goldmine?, emphasis added)
<br><br>This position and language stands in contrast to accounts of western<br>FDI, which is only presented as an unambiguously positive flow.<br>Unlike the West, the Chinese have ?insinuated? their way into the<br>continent. For example:
<br><br>?Quietly, while the attention of the world has been elsewhere, China<br>has become a major player in Africa?. (The Independent, 7 September<br>2006: ?The benefits and dangers of those gifts from the east?)<br><br>
?China, which now foresees annual trade with the world?s poorest<br>continent totalling $100 billion (?50 billion) by 2010, began<br>stepping up its presence stealthily in Africa in the early<br>1990s? (The Times, 25 April 2007: ?From favoured patron to target of
<br>dissenters?, emphasis added)<br><br>Dan Large, at SOAS, argues that these images are indicative of<br>western defensiveness about ?it?s backyard?, and can be seen as part<br>of a wider reaction to an emerging power. The language of red dragons
<br>in the continent takes us back to the geopolitical discourses that<br>characterised the Cold War.<br><br>Conclusions To retiterate, amongst the database of articles reviewed<br>there were alternative perspectives and stories, critical accounts of
<br>western roles and histories, and a recognition of the complex but<br>also positive possibilities of greater Sino-African relations.<br>However, the themes identified above emerged as strong and pervasive<br>scripts in British reporting on the contemporary relationships
<br>between Africa, China and the West. Africa is one place in which<br>China and western nations, notably the US, are likely to find<br>themselves in a position of competition, and these images and<br>languages, both popular and policy, are significant. In a recent
<br>analysis, Andrew Still (2005) urges the importance of maintaining<br>moderate, pragmatic and respectful language and diplomatic ?signals?<br>on both sides, if we are to avoid hardening ideological dividing<br>lines between China and the US in particular ? Still talks in terms
<br>of a potential degeneration of relations that could usher in the next<br>Cold War. He suggests that:<br><br>? ? some of the most difficult issues [between China and the US/West]<br>lie in the realm of ideas and identity rather than the narrow
<br>economic and political interests, making them far less tractable. Not<br>least of these will be the way in which the debate over ?the rise of<br>China? is conducted in the public sphere. The limited repertoire of<br>historical analogies on which it currently draws ? creates a
<br>distorting prism through which the issue is viewed and provides a<br>thin basis for more thoughtful analysis of how to ensure a peaceful<br>power transition? (Still, 2005, p.3-4)<br><br>In the context of what is certain to be growing economic and
<br>political competition between China and the US (with the UK and other<br>nations playing bit parts), including over Africa, media images and<br>representations will play an important role in shaping public<br>understandings, debates and political pressures. These in turn will
<br>have consequences ? however negotiated or contested ? for different<br>countries, actors and interests in Africa.<br><br>* Dr. Emma Mawdsley is a lecturer in geography and Cambridge<br>University. This article is a short version of a paper to be
<br>published in Political Geography in 2008. For a copy of the longer<br>version, please refer to the journal, or contact the author on:<br><a href="mailto:eem10@cam.ac.uk">eem10@cam.ac.uk</a><br><br>*Please send comments to
<a href="mailto:editor@pambazuka.org">editor@pambazuka.org</a> or comment online at<br><a href="http://www.pambazuka.org">http://www.pambazuka.org</a><br>******<br><br>KENYA: ETHNICITY, TRIBE, AND STATE<br>John Lonsdale<br>
<br>John Lonsdale argues that key to the post-election crisis in Kenya<br>lies in the changing role of the post-colonial state in relation to<br>the country's ethnic terms of political trade<br><br>The extensive commentary on Kenya's troubles has tended to blame
<br>ancient tribal rivalry, cynical political calculation, or a<br>combination of the two; with the corrupted electoral process seen as<br>providing the unintended catalyst - or worse, the deliberate<br>instigator that awakens latent tribal hostility. British imperialism
<br>has also received its expected share of criticism, for inventing the<br>now-indigenous Kenyan practice of divide and rule (see Caroline<br>Elkins, "What's Tearing Kenya Apart? History, for One Thing",<br>
Washington Post, 6 January 2008).<br><br>While all such explanations have some merit they may also mislead the<br>unwary, since they underplay the always slippery relations between<br>ethnicity as a universal human attribute, politicised tribalism as a
<br>contingent process, and the state - any state, colonial or otherwise<br>- as a cockpit of variously contested but always unequal power. How,<br>then, can a focus on such factors illuminate Kenya's continuing turmoil?
<br><br>A colonial formation<br><br>In the 19th century the area that became "Kenya" was stateless. Its<br>peoples' civility, their ethnicity, was shaped by their subsistence:<br>farming or herding, or some mixture of both. Such ethnic groups were
<br>not teams, not "tribes". Loyalties and rivalries were smaller than<br>that - patriarchal lineages, marriage alliances, age-groups, trading<br>partnerships, client-clusters, and the like. Ethnic groups were<br>
constituted more by internal debate over how to achieve honour in the<br>unequal lives of patron or client, than by solidarity against<br>strangers. Ethnic economies indeed were as often complementary as<br>competitive, with different specialisms. But such inter-ethnicity -
<br>which was not without its frictions - was facilitated by the absence<br>of any central power that might arrange groups in hierarchical<br>relations. Sustained "tribal rivalry" could not exist under such<br>decentralised, underpopulated, conditions.
<br><br>It was European rivalry that imported that modern Leviathan, the<br>state, in the late 19th century. It was, like all states, assembled<br>by force and driven by self-interest. Its British officials allied<br>with African leaders too weak to be rivals; and occasionally did a
<br>little to rein in the otherwise self-destructive excesses of those<br>potentially overmighty subjects, the white settlers. The colonial<br>state, responsible to Westminster and at the same time nervous of<br>India's viceroy and then (at independence) the country's first prime
<br>minister Jawaharlal Nehru - since British Indians far outnumbered<br>white Britons in Kenya - stood to some extent athwart both Africans<br>and settlers, trying to mediate the contradictions between them. Both<br>settlers and Africans colonised the state and the facilities it
<br>provided. What had previously been a multi-polar mosaic of scattered<br>nodes of socially productive energy became, within Kenya's new<br>borders, a layered pyramid of profit and power, unequally divided<br>between two key centres - one "white", one black - and many
<br>marginalised peripheries.<br><br>White settlers got 20% of Kenya's high-potential farmland. As these<br>settlers failed to provide enough state revenue and blocked African<br>opportunity, the British increasingly encouraged African farming on
<br>the other 80%. So the second economic centre became Kikuyu-land: home<br>of 20% of the population; close to the capital, Nairobi; cool and<br>attractive to missionaries, with more schools than elsewhere. By<br>geographical accident, then, Kikuyu had a head start in making money
<br>(essential to advance political ambitions) and in acquiring modern<br>managerial skill.<br><br>Most nationalisms start among those subjects who do best out of, and<br>are most useful to, an ancien regime; their frustrations are keenest,
<br>their opportunity greatest. Yet while that may explain Kikuyu<br>leadership of Kenya's anti-colonial nationalism, it does not account<br>for their involvement in Mau Mau, its secretive, violent, offshoot.<br>To that point I will return, as it is a key to understanding the
<br>present.<br><br>A social transformation<br><br>In the new circumstances, other and not-so-well-placed ethnic groups<br>made the most of what they had. They were often driven by a local<br>patriotism inspired by vernacular, mission-translated, Bibles that
<br>told of an enslaved people who became a tribal nation. They embarked,<br>in combinations of hope and desperation, on chain-migrations out of<br>pauper peripheries (not unlike the Scots or Irish in comparable<br>circumstances) to colonise particular niches of employment: on the
<br>railway; on white farms and plantations; in domestic service; or in<br>the police and army. Yet others came to dominate the livestock trade.<br><br>Officials and employers exploited these various tendencies and<br>stereotyped the supposed ethnic qualities of the group concerned. The
<br>British helped to harden ethnic divisions made greater by differing<br>potentials for social mobility. Britain did not simply divide in<br>order to rule.<br><br>The emergence of ethnic consciousness also arose from local debates
<br>about how the genders, generations, rich and poor should relate, as<br>older inequalities were transformed into new differentiations less<br>sensitive to existing moral audits of honour.<br><br>Nowhere was such differentiation so sharp as among Kikuyu. Its
<br>effects became politically acute after 1945 when settler employers in<br>the Rift Valley's "white highlands" mechanised production, and the<br>extensive Kikuyu diaspora of tenant-workers in the region refused the
<br>worsening conditions they were offered. These "ex-squatters", failing<br>to recover a home in their increasingly populated, and property-<br>protective, "reserves", had to make shift in Nairobi's slums. The
<br>insistent question, "how then can I live as an honourable Kikuyu?"<br>was what separated the militants of Mau Mau from the politically<br>conservative, propertied, patrons - led by Jomo Kenyatta - who first<br>
inspired them.<br><br>A political competition<br><br>The horrors of the Mau Mau "emergency" war of the 1950s that ensued<br>proved the repressive potential of a colonial state too closely<br>allied to the settlers, its strongest clients. But the relative
<br>calmness of decolonisation in 1963 similarly proved the advantages of<br>an outgoing state power that was not solely dependent upon its local<br>roots - a clear contrast with Rhodesia's fiery end. The post-colonial
<br>state - rooted in a competitive society, for good historical reasons<br>- is once more different. For the state has been the sole agency by<br>which Africans could aspire to climb the commanding heights of the<br>economy against racially entrenched interests - in land, commerce and
<br>finance. In recent years it has continued this role by ever more<br>devious means, to meet external demands for "liberalisation". Access<br>to its power matters. It is concentrated in an executive presidency,
<br>now directly elected, capable of manipulating all public<br>institutions, including a parliament elected from single-member<br>constituencies that either singly or in contiguous groups coincide<br>with what have become tribal territories.
<br><br>In consequence, the competition for a share in this power became<br>governed by internal ethnic accountability and tribal rivalry.<br>President Kenyatta and his Kikuyu elite soothed the frustrated honour<br>of their Kikuyu poor with settlement schemes in the former "white
<br>highlands" (of which the bulk, historically, had belonged to less<br>favoured Maasai and Kalenjin groups). His successor Daniel arap Moi,<br>finding less room for the poor of own Kalenjin, did more to create<br>for them an ethnic elite.
<br><br>Politicians generally justify their privilege by carving ethnic<br>benefits from state largesse. But (in Kenya as elsewhere) this<br>extractive approach faced increasing pressures. The ferocity of<br>competition for a share of state power rose over time - as population
<br>has grown, as the fertilising rains of the post-colonial<br>Africanisation of opportunity long ago dried up, as the terms of<br>trade for primary commodities turned sour. It was fairly easy for<br>Kenyatta to ensure that all, more or less, enjoyed a turn "to eat" in
<br>the ethnic coalitions on which a parliamentary majority relied. It<br>was more difficult for Moi. As the political stakes rose, so it<br>became more tempting to attract and reward one's ethnic followers<br>with officially-deniable opportunities for thuggery at the expense of
<br>those who were now tribal rivals in land, urban property, or petty<br>trade. With every "bought" election, popular anger grew among Kenyan<br>citizens - to an extent that they created pressure for a<br>constitutional change which would strengthen parliament at the
<br>expense of the presidency.<br><br>A national transition?<br><br>A new president, Mwai Kibaki, was elected in 2002 to clean the Aegean<br>stables. But in that effort he has disappointed all but his Kikuyu<br>cronies. Now, in the presidential election of 27 December 2007, he
<br>appears to many to have broken the tacit rules of national<br>competition - the last straw. That the opposition was, it seems,<br>merely less successful in rigging the ballot will not make<br>reconciliation any easier. Some of the subsequent opposition violence
<br>is politically directed. But the worst, by Kalenjin "warriors"<br>against Kikuyu "immigrants" into the Rift Valley, may have outrun<br>such elite-engineered tribalism to become an eerie echo of Mau Mau -
<br>in being an internal, generational, ethnic revolt against the<br>compromises by which its own recently-manufactured Kalenjin elite<br>came to terms with the "old wealth" of Kenyatta's Kikuyu.<br><br>There are, then, two very different dynamics currently at work in
<br>Kenya: internal ethnic dissidence and external tribal rivalry.<br>Neither can be disarmed without rewriting the rules of political<br>competition for the power of a rather different ("post-post-<br>colonial") state. It would have to be less closely allied to its
<br>strongest clients, and offer its services more disinterestedly to all<br>Kenyans. These might in consequence come to think of themselves more<br>as citizens, less as ethnically-defined clients. It is a very great<br>deal to ask.
<br><br>Kenya faces two possible futures. On the one hand, the normal inter-<br>ethnicity of most daily lives may have been poisoned by the recent<br>violence, forecasting a broken state. On the other, the shock may<br>have persuaded Kenyan elites of the old, Burkean, truth that a state
<br>without the means of some change is without the means of its<br>conservation. There is perhaps a glimmer of hope in the opposition's<br>success in getting its man elected as the speaker of the new parliament.<br><br>
<br>* John Lonsdale is emeritus professor of modern African history and<br>fellow of Trinity College Cambridge. This article was first published<br>in OpenDemocracy<br><br>*Please send comments to <a href="mailto:editor@pambazuka.org">
editor@pambazuka.org</a> or comment online at<br><a href="http://www.pambazuka.org">http://www.pambazuka.org</a><br>******<br><br>THE KENYA CASE AND MEDIA BIAS<br>Antony Otieno Ong'ayo<br><br><br>While the whole world is aware of the crisis is in Kenya, thanks to
<br>the international and local media, most of their reporting is<br>accurate, however, there is need for an honest analysis of the<br>situation in Kenya<br><br>The media<br><br>It is sad at this moment in time to apply outdated tactics of
<br>muzzling the people who are expressing a democratic right. In the<br>case of Kenya, gagging the media would not help Kibaki and his<br>cohorts, since the level of awareness and resolve among Kenyans not<br>to return to the dark days of dictatorship is so high. The courage of
<br>the Kenyan media and journalists despite setbacks initiated by<br>Internal security Minster (Michuki) is worth noting, but more so the<br>way in which they reported events during the campaigns and eventful<br>day of vote counting. However, there are problems with headlines
<br>(both local and international) that have appeared since the outbreak<br>of post elections violence.<br><br>The ethnic dimension is appearing to be the main focus of<br>international press and they are also reporting that it is a Kikuyu-
<br>Luo issue but that is not true. Besides the fighting in the slums in<br>Nairobi, Nakuru and Mombasa whose inhabitants are from all<br>backgrounds though dominated by communities from western Kenya,<br>Killings taking pace in the Rift Valley; Coast provinces are not
<br>perpetrated by the Luos. The fact that Raila is a Luo is not a<br>justification enough to tag a whole community, just because one of<br>them is a leading personality in the current stalemate.<br><br>Such bias will direct attention in the wrong direction, and could be
<br>used to gang up against other communities, as has been the case in<br>the past. There is no mention of killings taking place in Nyanza<br>province especially in the Lake Town of Kisumu where Police has been<br>shooting protesters at the orders of the internal Security Minister
<br>(Michuki).<br><br>Condemnation of violence should be applied across the board. Victims<br>of the violence are from all over especially in the slums, but where<br>it is perpetrated by the state in a selective manner, condemnation
<br>should be focused on security forces and those who give such orders)<br>These kinds of statements misinform the world of the actual facts on<br>the ground and hinder insights that could help get Kenya out of the<br>situation.
<br><br>Secondly reducing the current post election conflict to a Kikuyu-Luo<br>affair is cheap analysis that is devoid of facts and reflections of<br>what happens on the ground. Most of the current Western media<br>analyses do not taken into account the underlying factors such as the
<br>failure of institutions of the state, such as the electoral<br>commission of Kenya whose mediocre performance has plunged the<br>country into bloodshed, a draconian constitutional framework that has<br>been at the service of ethnic chauvinists and jingoist in power since
<br>1963, the centralised power and networks that benefit from it, whose<br>abuse and actions have led to marginalisation of certain groups from<br>national resources, equitable public appointments, and the grand<br>scheme involving local and international elites who exploit Kenya
<br>under the ?old order?, interests/forces that want to keep the status<br>quo and their role in the current problem.<br><br>Bias and partisan analyses are also observed in the local media<br>especially the media owners association, Kenya broadcasting
<br>corporation, Kenyan citizens in the diaspora through various blog<br>sites and debaters in the local Newspapers where intellectuals,<br>opinion and church leaders have taken sides, instead of guiding the<br>debate in a more honest way so that all Kenyans can identify where
<br>the problem lies (draconian laws, out-dated political system,<br>poverty, inequality, corruption, unequal distribution of resources<br>countrywide and lack of access to essential services among others).<br>Kenyans suffer under these conditions regardless of their tribe, and
<br>that is why those who live in the slums are from all tribes, even<br>though previously marginalized by earlier regimes such as the Luo,<br>Luhya and other minority groups make up the majority in those dwellings.<br><br>
Leadership and national interest<br><br>The question that people need to ask is why did Kibaki sought to be<br>Kenya?s president, in 1992, 1997, and finally became one in 2002? Was<br>it because he lacked money? Was he someone with an agenda for the
<br>?whole ? nation?<br><br>And if he had one, what was the agenda? Was that agenda realised<br>between 2003 and 2007? Why are Kenyans having a problem with his<br>agenda presented during the campaigns and the people around him
<br>majority of whom have been rejected in their own backyards? Why did<br>most Kenyans have a problem with giving him another mandate? Why<br>would someone who is a billionaire and aged 76, not want to leave a<br>legacy that would be remembered in positive terms? What is so painful
<br>to forego that Kibaki would not want a clean election? More important<br>to ask is why the current ?elite? and morons around Kibaki are afraid<br>of change of the current system and/or leadership to go into the<br>hands of ?lesser? communities? And lastly, why was the current regime
<br>rejected by majority of provinces and communities? Even though there<br>are arguments that Kenya?s economy has grown at 6% over the past two<br>years, the gap between the rich and poor has widened, with more<br>people falling below the poverty line. The slums did not get smaller,
<br>nor did North Eastern and North-Eastern provinces get piped water<br>from lake Victoria, the Samburus did not receive hospitals and tarmac<br>roads, no fish industry was built along Lake Victoria and loans given<br>to fishermen. 40 years is a long time for the Samburu, Turkana,
<br>Rendile and Somalis to wait for basic and essential services to reach<br>them, it is a long time for Kamba people to wait for water and<br>receive food hand outs during starvation, it is a long time before<br>the fishermen along Lake Victoria receive funding through a fishing
<br>Board to take care of their interests in agriculture as done to<br>coffee, tea, pyrethrum and dairy farmers; it is along time to wait<br>for any major industry in Western Kenya; it too long time for<br>Mijikenda to have resources from Coastal investments recycled back to
<br>alleviate their poverty, thirst for water, better schools and hospitals.<br><br>Obstacle to dialogue<br><br>In my view Kibaki is hostage to a number of factors that seems to<br>contradict his call for putting the nation first. First and foremost
<br>are the networks of buddies and business comrades and elite form Mt<br>Kenya who have been on the Gravy train since 2003. For what explains<br>the refusal to find a middle ground while knowing so well that the<br>outcome of the elections are not acceptable to everyone including
<br>their own people? The people holding Kibaki hostage are the ones<br>Kenyans need to address in their quest for finding a peaceful<br>solution to the current crisis. These people have a lot to loose if<br>the man goes, thus the reason they are against recount, judicial
<br>review or re-run of presidential elections. Kenyans regardless of<br>their ethnic background come distant in their priority of needs and<br>actions. The opposition also has a role to play in the process and<br>that will depend on the kind of proposal they put on table, which
<br>should be scrutinised by Kenyans since the issue at hand is about how<br>Kenyans are governed and therefore Kibaki or Raila are just but<br>people they expect to govern them through their mandate which<br>includes listening to their views and respecting their will as
<br>expressed through the social contract via the vote and representative<br>democracy.<br><br>A Government of National Unity, or a recount of ballots papers will<br>not solve any problem. It is a well-known fact that ballot papers
<br>especially those used for tallying presidential votes were already<br>tampered with and might mot be traced. Secondly Keep never keeps any<br>promise. He did not keep his promise to Kenyans after he made<br>promises upon election in 2002; he never honoured agreements with his
<br>comrades upon enthronement, he renegade on the fight against<br>corruption, poverty and tribalism. He does not have the will to keep<br>his promises therefore arrangements such as a government of national<br>unity will just be a soft landing for him, it will be a process that
<br>legitimises his hold onto power at the expense of democracy and the<br>will of Kenyans who came out to vote on the 27^th December 2007.<br>Kibaki and his handlers, do not care about democracy, it is a word<br>they use at their convenience. The best arbitrator in this case is
<br>the voter. All mediators coming to Kenya should not let Kenyans down<br>by proposing frameworks that will maintain the status quo. It will be<br>a mockery to democracy and great betrayal to the many Kenyans who<br>have lots their lives since the 50s, to liberate the country from
<br>colonial yokes but also from the yokes of fellow Kenyans such as<br>Kenyatta, Moi and Kibaki.<br><br>The Killings<br><br>Kenyans should stop Killing each other. The culprits are few people<br>who are out busy with self-aggrandisement at the expense of a whole
<br>nation.<br><br>Although the current killings are unacceptable since they are an<br>outcome of a stupidity of failure by Kenyan politicians to grasp the<br>communality interest, Kenyans and more so those who abuse the<br>
political system and state institutions and resources should know<br>that "Kenya belongs to all who belong in it" and all should be given<br>equal treatment. There is no justification for the minister of<br>internal security to use outdated and counterproductive tactics of
<br>targeting specific ethnic groups with paramilitary force and orders<br>to kill. The images on television screens, shows that most of these<br>people could be apprehended and taken to court.<br><br>Senseless beating and shooting based on orders of a politician with
<br>colonial hangovers will exacerbate acts of revenge instead of<br>resorting to the rule of law to settle disputes or address acts pf<br>violence that are currently being perpetrated by some Kenyans who<br>exploit the chaotic situation. The paramilitary police used by
<br>Michuki on the Luo (historical tactic, used by Kenyatta, in the 60s<br>and early seventies) is selective and directed in one direction<br>towards a group of people but that too will create more anger and<br>feelings for revenge.
<br><br>Struggles in the Rift Valley are also about past wrongs against the<br>minority communities like Ogieks who were chased out of the forest<br>and the places given to the central province groups. Maasai and<br>Kalenjin whose prime land were taken by the British, and later by the
<br>elite around Kenyatta. These grievances have never been addressed and<br>due to the complex nature of ethnic blend in those regions, Moi for<br>instance exploited this mix to cause chaos in order to vilify the<br>onset of multiparty in Kenya. Ethnic clashes in 1992 and 1997,
<br>produced suffering and anger which have been kept low, but now fully<br>exploited in the face of a dashed hope for change. These people<br>thought there could be some equity with change of government but that<br>hope is gone, so we expect anger, but also revenge as result of past
<br>clashes that were instigated by Moi prior to 1992, and 97 elections.<br><br>Democratic test What I fear most is that if Kibaki is allowed to<br>rule, Kenya will return to the dark ages, all the democratic gains<br>will be lost. They will know that they can always rig elections and
<br>get away with it no matter what people do including protest, they<br>don?t mind whether people die or not, since they will be able to get<br>away with it.<br><br>Kibaki?s behaviour in relation to vote tallying and results in the
<br>2007 elections makes democracy look sick in Africa. It brings to mind<br>the question whether there are free and fair elections? Or whether<br>franchise or high voter turn out as witnessed in Kenya can turn a<br>regime out of office? What about the role of institutions to support
<br>such a process like an independent police, electoral commission,<br>judiciary and a parliament that is sensitive to the needs of the<br>country, free and non-partisan media, respect for the rule of law by<br>all parties involved in the electoral process? Even though democracy
<br>has never been perfect although being adopted by nations and peoples,<br>its institutionalisation depend more on local history, culture and<br>geography and not analyses and prescription as it is applied in other<br>contexts. In the case of Kenya, the political, economic and social
<br>systems are complex and full of nuances, combined with other forces/<br>vested interests/pressure groups that exert more power, thus making<br>the ordinary voter appear to be a pawn rather than a "king" maker.
<br><br>Therefore if Kenya is to build on the already made gains on the<br>democratic front, a solution to the current crisis must be found in<br>tandem with the reality on the ground. The reality that the<br>?presidential election was rigged? and the incumbent is hell-bent on
<br>hanging to power no mater what cost, but also the reality that the<br>opposition is making claims which have been proved right by the<br>electoral commission itself and the various poll observers that<br>Kibaki did not win the elections?. Although, calling for peace or on
<br>the major players to urge their supporters to clam down is a first<br>step, but the call for peace should not water down the main cause of<br>the problem which is ?rigged elections? which is a threat to<br>democratic gains. Being soft on this point would embolden the
<br>antagonists especially the ?winners? and based on their history of<br>arrogance and lack of decorum in addressing national issues, they<br>will brush aside the issue at stake and this will fuel anger which is<br>not only expressed by the opposition, but the very people the winners
<br>want to ?rule? at all cost.<br><br>Way out<br><br>Asking Raila or Kenyans to forget this and forge ahead, and wait for<br>another 5 years by many partisan authors in various local dailies and<br>international blogs is not sincere and honest since such calls are
<br>directed at one party and not the other two. Why are people not<br>asking Kibaki to resign? Why not ask for recount and audit of the<br>votes? If the Electoral commission is not honest, how sure can we be<br>of the courts in Kenya? Kenyans know that the system is rotten thus
<br>the overwhelming vote and a clear message that they want something<br>different. They should not be denied this difference by hiding behind<br>discourses that keeps on mystifying the problem. If Kibaki goes on<br>without the approval of Kenyans, he is not making it better for those
<br>already hurt in one way or the other through killings and destruction<br>seen in the past days. These things will haunt the nation after he is<br>long gone and people around him or groups supporting him will not<br>escape blame and demands to be held accountable. Peace can only come
<br>when the two parties agree to talk, engage and get into a process<br>that will heal wounds on both sides of the divide (the people, the<br>Opposition and PNU politicians). Allowing Kibaki to go ahead and bury<br>his head as if nothing serious has happened will only exacerbate the
<br>arrogance of the group around him as witnessed during a recent press<br>conference and the exchange between PNU Ministers and the press. Such<br>one sided approach and attack on the opposition will only help<br>strengthen the status quo, the exploitation, discrimination and
<br>inequality along tribal lines, which will exacerbate problems even if<br>calmness would return today.<br><br>What is urgently needed are; Curfew in Opposition areas to be lifted<br>and regular police patrols with a humane face be initiated in hot
<br>spots to give people confidence in the state institutions for their<br>safety. The general service unit has no role in the process since it<br>is a catalyst instead of providing safety.<br>The Kenya Pipeline Corporation should immediately resume pumping oil
<br>to western Kenya and Uganda. Cutting this supply is not different<br>from scorched earth policy and if someone in the government has<br>ordered such action, which was observed already before the election<br>days then he/she or they are fueling the crisis instead of solving
<br>it. This should apply to other services like electricity, food items<br>among others Kenyan civil society organisations, Law Society, The<br>Kenya National Human Rights Commission and invited institutions to<br>help in the process of reconciliation and putting in place a
<br>framework that would bring back the credibility of the electoral<br>process and an acceptable conclusion A re-run of presidential<br>election supervised by a team of independent observers and<br>representatives of the two parties (ODM and PNU) within an agreed
<br>time frame. It is now clear from ECK that they did not know who won.<br>The ECK had put aside funds for a run off, and that money can be used<br>to SAVE KENYA.<br><br>* Antony Otieno Ong'ayo is a Researcher in the New Politics Programme
<br>at the Transnational Institute<br><br>*Please send comments to <a href="mailto:editor@pambazuka.org">editor@pambazuka.org</a> or comment online at<br><a href="http://www.pambazuka.org">http://www.pambazuka.org</a><br>
******<br><br><br><br>/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\<br>3 Pan-African Postcard<br>PARACHUTE JOURNALISM AND THE KENYAN CRISIS<br>George Ogola<br><br>George Ogola decries the simplistic western approach to covering news
<br>on Africa, as exemplified by the reporting of the Kenyan post-<br>election crisis<br><br>They were probably the longest days of my life. Red-eyed from lack of<br>sleep and desperate for updated information on the Kenyan elections,
<br>I meticulously watched international TV networks and spent hours<br>surfing the net for relevant sites covering the elections. I could<br>sense curiosity turn into anxiety then fear before an unprecedented<br>implosion. Kenya was at war with itself.
<br><br>The Economist called it ?a very African coup? while Raila Odinga<br>called it ?a civilian coup?. Both PNU and ODM claimed victory.<br>Confusion reigned as chaos erupted. Months of excitement had turned<br>into uncertainty for some and distress for others. But as I agonised
<br>with my people, there was a parallel drama unfolding.<br><br>When controversy over the presidential elections threatened to<br>destroy our fragile nation-state, ?parachute? journalists descended<br>on Nairobi eager to cover yet another ?trouble spot? in the blighted
<br>continent. As the country went to the polls, Africa collectively had<br>no more than tickers in the major international news channels.<br><br>A week prior to the election, only Al-Jazeera had taken some trouble<br>to tell the Kenyan story. Reuters Africa proved another notable
<br>exception. But the familiar would soon follow, vicious and unrelenting.<br><br>When protests met the announcement of the presidential results, CNN,<br>BBC 24 and Sky News sent some of their finest to Nairobi. But the<br>
frame of reference had been pre-determined. A narrative had been<br>established. Kenya had descended into tribal anarchy reminiscent of<br>the Rwanda genocide.<br><br>Neighbours had turned onto each other just because they belonged to
<br>different tribes. ?Tribal violence? became the definitive mantra and<br>was the basis for reports across the world.<br><br>I recall a BBC 24 news anchor asking a reporter when the results were<br>announced whether a military coup was an immediate possibility.
<br><br>Meanwhile, pundits were carefully selected. As a rule, they were<br>middle class white folk mostly ex-diplomats previously based in<br>Africa and ?respected? London-based Africanists working with the<br>city?s many ?Think-Tanks?. There was the occasional African
<br>interviewed on a late night show. The frames of reference could not<br>be destabilised.<br><br>People were being targeted and killed indiscriminately by tribal<br>mobs. The savagery both in the deed as well as coverage was taken to
<br>new heights when a Church was set ablaze in Eldoret killing more than<br>40 people.<br><br>International reporters flew to the town and milked the tragedy. They<br>reconstructed the gory scenes, the savagery unbeknown to man since
<br>Rwanda. Footage of rotting corpses in maize fields and overflowing<br>morgues were aired without reservation. The dead were denied dignity.<br>If you were Kenyan, you cried; and I wept. But I cried for my country<br>as well as the job I love.
<br><br>The kind of coverage I saw on Sky, BBC 24, Euro News and a host other<br>channels was not magnanimity. I was convinced it was not a desire by<br>a section of the international media to tell the world the true story
<br>about the conflict that was slowly consuming Kenya. This was about a<br>good story; it was about the exploitation of a people crying out for<br>help.<br><br>It was equally about a western anthropology that figures conflict in
<br>Africa only in tribal terms; an Africa whose existence is so basic it<br>must not be understood beyond the discourse of the tribe.<br><br>I witnessed the power of a selective morality that tends to view<br>Africa from a paradigm of difference, a unique rationality that
<br>embraces the kind of savagery the world was witnessing.<br><br>Feature stories, commentaries and editorial pieces revelled in<br>descriptions of gore; of eyes gorged, bodies burnt beyond<br>recognition, of limbs severed with machetes. The description sounded
<br>more like a sport. Context and detail was ignored as the number of<br>deaths became fodder for good stories.<br><br>Highbrow newspapers suddenly became tabloids with pictures of fleeing<br>Kenyans, children sleeping rough and lines of women with bowls
<br>queuing for food making the cover pages. TV news anchors asked<br>reporters on the ground how many were starving, how many more had<br>been killed, and how many more villages had been razed.<br><br>Helicopters were more useful flying over burnt out villages to
<br>capture footage of frightened villagers than provide assistance. When<br>many news channels heard whiff of planned protests, the question was<br>not what it was about but how violent it would be. The threshold of<br>death was continuously being revised, indeed rewritten.
<br><br>Amid this, the obvious was deliberately being negated. Why was<br>violence in Nairobi largely restricted to the slums of Kibera and<br>Mathare? Was it possible that the Kenyan poor were at war with the<br>rich and with themselves, though speaking in a voice that is anathema
<br>to a revolution? Why was violence so seductive? Why were the middle<br>classes marooned in their suburbs, silent and invisible?<br><br>Why was the violence so vicious in the rural areas and especially in<br>the Rift Valley? Was it really possibly that because of disputed
<br>presidential elections, Kenya would suddenly implode? Was there a<br>historical trajectory to this conflict? No, the unambiguity of Africa<br>as a problem continent could not be challenged at a time when it was<br>such a good story.
<br><br>The assumption that informs the continent?s interpretation is that<br>this is a continent whose civilisation cannot be so sophisticated as<br>to have class wars; neither can it justifiably fight for anything<br>remotely democratic. I?m still torn between weeping for my country
<br>and an institution I still love dearly.<br><br>* Dr. George Ogola teaches at the University of Central Lancashire<br><br>*Please send comments to <a href="mailto:editor@pambazuka.org">editor@pambazuka.org</a> or comment online at
<br><a href="http://www.pambazuka.org">http://www.pambazuka.org</a><br>******<br><br><br><br>/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\/\/\//\<br><br><br>Fahamu - Networks For Social Justice<br><a href="http://www.fahamu.org">
http://www.fahamu.org</a><br><br>? Unless otherwise indicated, all materials published are licensed<br>under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative<br>Works 3.0 Unported License. For further details see: http://
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